Information - Knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or instruction; a quantitative measure of the content of information.
Astroturfing - Organized activity that is intended to create a false impression of widespread grassroots movement in support of or in opposition to something but that is in reality initiated and controlled by a concealed group or organization.
Clickbait - Something designed to make readers want to click on a hyperlink especially when the link leads to content of dubious value or interest.
Cognitive dissonance - Psychological conflict arising from holding contradictory beliefs simultaneously.
Confirmation bias - The tendency to process and analyze information in such a way so as to support one's pre-existing ideas or convictions.
Deepfake - An image or recording that has been convincingly altered and manipulated to misrepresent someone as doing or saying something that was not actually done or said.
Disinformation - False information deliberately and often covertly spread (as by the planting of rumors) in order to influence public opinion or obscure the truth. A specific type of misinformation that is intended to deceive.
Echo chamber - An environment in which the same opinions are repeatedly voiced or promoted so as to shut out opposing points of view.
False equivalence - An argument or claim in which two completely opposing positions appear to be logically equivalent when in fact they are not. A practice in which journalists give equal time to inferior arguments that have been discredited by facts.
Hoax - An act intended to trick or dupe; something accepted or established by fraud or fabrication; to trick into believing or accepting as genuine something false and often preposterous.
Illusory truth effect - The tendency to believe false information the more often it is repeated.
Junk science - Faulty scientific information or research, especially when used to advance special interests.
Misinformation - Incorrect, incomplete or misleading information. May or may not be deliberately disseminated. Sometimes can result from the rush to publish a story.
Native advertising - Material in an online publication that resembles the publication's editorial content but is paid for by an advertiser and intended to promote the advertiser's product. Advertising masquerading as news.
Negativity bias - The tendency for people to react to negative stimuli (information) to a greater extent than they do to positive or neutral stimuli.
Post-truth - Relating to a situation in which people are more likely to believe an argument based on their emotions and beliefs than one based on facts.
Propaganda - The spreading of ideas, information, or rumor for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person. Its purpose is to distort.
In order to determine the quality and accuracy of a news story, you should perform the following steps in what is known as the deconstruction process:
Source: Center for News Literacy, Stony Brook University School of Journalism
False information is often conveyed in the context of conspiracy theories, which explain events or sets of circumstances to be the result of a secret plot by powerful people or assert that a secret of great importance is being kept from the public. The following are some of the reasons that people might be attracted to conspiracy theories:
Reputable publications generally separate their news and opinion sections. Opinion will often appear on an editorial or op-ed page.
A biased publication or website might blur the lines between fact and opinion; therefore, you should always watch for opinion pieces masquerading as news items and look for both sides of any story.
When you click on a news article, be sure to open a second tab on your web browser. Use the second tab to look up any facts or claims made in the article. Use a fact checking website to check any claims.
Fake News Websites
Sources That Identify Media Bias
Whenever you find an article in a news source, whether in print or online, you should always attempt to verify the presented information in other sources and trace the information to the original source if possible. You should also do outside research on the source itself to determine whether it is credible. This process is known as lateral reading.
Lateral reading involves reading articles on the topic in question by other authors as well as reading other items by the author who wrote the article that you have. Below are some questions that News Literacy Project recommends that you ask yourself when you go through this process:
When you encounter an unfamiliar website, it is advisable to open additional tabs in your browser and go through the process of lateral reading before doing anything else. A good rule of thumb is to confirm a news story in at least three different sources.
When arguments are made in what you read and hear, you should watch out for the following logical fallacies:
News – Timely information of some public interest that is shared and subject to a journalistic process of verification and for which an independent individual or organization is directly accountable. Quality news sources will prominently correct any errors.
Click here to view a document entitled The Info Zones from News Literacy Project that details how news differs from opinion, advertisement, entertainment, publicity, propaganda, and raw information.
Some things to look for when evaluating whether an image is fake or doctored:
Fake - Not true, real, or genuine: counterfeit, sham.
Fake news is misleading information about recent events of general interest, especially as reported by the print and broadcast media. The fake news seeks to misinform the audience and sway the audience into believing something that is not true.
While fake news can take many forms, there are several broad types.
Deliberate Misinformation - There is fake news written for profit and then shared on social media for targeted groups of people who want to believe that it is true. The intention is for the fake news to spread without readers taking the time to properly verify it. This type of fake news is untrue news.
False Headlines - A news headline may read one way or state something as fact, but then the article says something different. The Internet term for this type of misleading fake news is “clickbait” - headlines that catch a reader’s attention to make them click on the fake news. This type of fake news is misleading at best and untrue at worst.
Social Media Sharing - Social media’s ability to show a large number of news items in a short time means that users might not take the time to research and verify each one. These sites often rely on shares, likes, or followers who then turn news items into a popularity contest - and just because something is popular and widely-shared does not mean it is true.
Satire - Satire news or comedy news often begins with an aspect of truth then purposefully twists it to comment on society. Satire news has the potential to be spread as though it is real news by those who do not understand its humorous nature. An example of a well-known satire website is The Onion.
Credit: Spotting Fake News
Source: Wardle, Claire. “Fake News. It's Complicated.” First Draft, Medium, 16 Feb. 2017.
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